Donepezil

Aimee Byonghee Chung, MD

• Assistant Professor of Pediatrics
• Assistant Professor in Medicine

https://medicine.duke.edu/faculty/aimee-byonghee-chung-md

Both patient and physician wish for an easy solution treatment 911 discount donepezil 5 mg line, but the problem is often complex and not easily treated with drugs treatment for pink eye trusted donepezil 5 mg. Physicians caring for women should make a special effort to uncover sexual dysfunction or poor sexual response medicine to treat uti cheap 10 mg donepezil, as patients often do not bring up the problem unless asked treatment in spanish purchase donepezil cheap. Overall treatment ulcer purchase 5 mg donepezil, 40% of those respondents with sexual disorder of desire, arousal, or orgasm have concurrent depression. Obviously, assembling a careful history by asking general and directed questions is appropriate when dealing with a patient in a gynecologic visit. The patient should be asked if she is sexually active; if she is active with men, women, or both; if intercourse is comfortable and enjoyable (if heterosexual); and if she experiences orgasm. Depending on the answer to these questions, more specific questioning should follow with the objective of outlining the extent of any problem and determining if there is distress related to the problem. Sexual response problems may be the result of a previous negative sexual experience or may be secondary to emotional or physical illness. Primary medical conditions causing female sexual dysfunction can be hormonal, anatomic, vascular, or neurologic. Drugs with antihypertensive and anticholinergic activity, as well as those active at the - and -adrenergic receptors, may decrease arousal or inhibit sexual interest. Hypoactive sexual desire disorder is the most common sexual dysfunction and is reported by 5% to 14% of women surveyed. This is defined as persistent or recurrent deficiency of sexual desire that causes distress. Because each individual has his or her own libidinal drive, it is not surprising that couples may have some incompatibility of needs. It is important, however, that these needs and desires be discussed openly and that reasons for lack of sexual desire that may involve experiences or problems inherent in the relationship be resolved. At times the problem may be merely a failure to set aside appropriate time and effort for intimacy. The couple should be encouraged to give sexual activity a high priority within their relationship rather than leaving it last on the list of priorities. Couples should be encouraged to use arousal and seduction techniques that are appropriate for their relationship. Sexual arousal disorder is characterized by a persistent inability to sense genital arousal. There may be difficulty attaining adequate lubrication and swelling response of sexual excitement. The prevalence of this disorder is uncertain but possibly 5% and often coexists with decreased sexual desire, chronic medical conditions, or vaginal atrophy. However, there is no evidence that low testosterone levels distinguish women with sexual desire disorder from others. Testosterone testing in women is not recommended because the commonly available tests are not sensitive enough to detect the low concentrations in women, and the normal range in women has not been established. It is approved for premenopausal women, and daily use increased satisfying sexual events by only 1 per month. Estrogen may improve sexual desire if hypoestrogenism is causing an overall lack of well-being from nighttime hot flashes and poor sleep or genital discomfort from atrophy. Levels of endogenous androgens therapy that increase serum concentrations to the upper limit of normal have consistently been shown to improve female sexual desire and sexual activity. The transdermal testosterone patch has been evaluated with the higher dose patch (300 g) showing increases in desire over a 6-month study in selected populations of postmenopausal women. The group that has the most response to testosterone is women who have had surgical menopause. Bupropion has shown some effectiveness, even in women without depression, but further studies are needed. Ospemifene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator that is approved for vulvovaginal atrophy and dyspareunia in postmenopausal women. This would be appropriate for women with hypoactive sexual desire disorder thought to be from pain from vaginal atrophy. Because sex is a biopsychosocial experience, it is not surprising that no one treatment for low libido stands out. Studies narrowly focusing on orgasm, genital function, or frequency of intercourse without addressing satisfaction or quality of life may not get at the essence of the sexual experience. Masters and Johnson taught women sensate focus using masturbation training and working with the partners with apparently good results. Vaginal or systemic estrogen therapy improves arousal disorder by improving vaginal blood flow and lubrication in postmenopausal women. Vaginismus is a condition in which the woman has difficulties allowing vaginal entry of a penis. It is thought to be secondary to involuntary contraction of vaginal introital and levator ani muscles. Lamont has attempted to classify the degrees of vaginismus and, in a group of 80 patients, noted that 27 (34%) had first-degree vaginismus, defined as perineal and levator spasm relieved by reassurance during pelvic examination. Another 21 (26%) had second-degree vaginismus, defined as perineal spasm maintained throughout the pelvic examination. These patients frequently complain not only of pain or fear of pain with coitus or pelvic examination but also of difficulty in inserting a tampon or vaginal medication. The condition may be primary, in which case the individual has never experienced successful coitus. This problem is generally based on either early sexual abuse or aversion to sexuality in general. Vaginismus may also occur in patients who have been sexually active when an injury or vaginal infection has led to vaginal pain with attempted coitus. This has been seen in rape victims and in women who have had painful episiotomy repairs, severe yeast vaginitis, or vulvodynia. When the underlying cause for the vaginismus is understood, the matter may be discussed frankly with the patient and her partner to effect a relearning process that is conducive to relieving the symptoms. Cognitive and behavioral therapy is encouraged, and then desensitization treatment can begin. Once desensitized to the fear and panic and by helping the woman feel in control, the actual vaginal spasm then may be relieved by teaching the patient muscle relaxation, then self-dilation techniques, using fingers or dilators, in which she and her partner can participate. This is often greatly facilitated by having the woman working with a skilled pelvic floor physical therapist. There are little data from controlled trials, although one trial compared two desensitization techniques, which were both effective. Dyspareunia is a sexual dysfunction in which genital pain occurs before, during, or after intercourse that frequently has an organic basis. Vulvodynia is chronic pain and burning in the vulva and affects 6 million women and the cause is largely unknown. When no organic cause can be found for the dyspareunia, techniques similar to those used in evaluating and managing vaginismus are appropriate. Pelvic floor physical therapy may be beneficial for vaginismus, vulvodynia, and dyspareunia as well as sex therapy. With all the sexual pain disorders, it is not uncommon to treat the underlying organic cause with success and find the pain continues. Couples should be encouraged to experiment with female-dominant and side-byside positions to see if the pain can be prevented. Orgasmic dysfunction is less common at 3% to 6% of women and is often situational. As many as 10% to 15% of women have never experienced an orgasm through any form of sexual stimulation, and another 25% to 35% will have difficulty reaching an orgasm on any particular occasion. Many women may be orgasmic secondary to masturbation or oral sex but may not be orgasmic with penile intercourse. If the patient is anorgasmic during intercourse but has experienced orgasms, communication with her partner may aid in bringing about an orgasm during intercourse by allowing her or her partner to stimulate her clitoral area with the intensity and timing necessary to bring about an orgasm. If the woman is anorgasmic, she may be given permission to learn masturbatory techniques and sensate focus exercises to become comfortable with her own body until she has an orgasm. Then these techniques may be applied to the coital situation, thereby developing the desired response during coitus. Couples should be encouraged to communicate their sexual needs so that appropriate stimulation is offered during the arousal period and during intercourse. For situational orgasmic disorder, the focus of dialogue should be the relationship. Developing this type of dialogue is often difficult but can be aided by counseling with a sensitive physician or sex therapist. Although physicians and women may desire a pharmacologic solution, at present there is a paucity of good quality evidence. In fact, in the clinical trials of drug treatments for female sexual dysfunction, the placebo responses have been substantial. Whether attention to sexual function or changes in sexual behavior during a trial result in the marked placebo response, this definitely complicates the studies and needs to be considered in any treatment offered. Psychosexual counseling is often appropriate, as well as a comprehensive medical evaluation. Early uncontrolled studies were the first to suggest increased rates of depression, abuse, and substance abuse (Bradford, 1994). A systematic review and meta-analysis (King, 2008) found an increased rate of depression, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse and dependence in lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Lesbian and bisexual women had a particularly high rate of alcohol and drug dependence and, again, this was more pronounced in adolescents. A number of studies have now documented that lesbian women use mental health services at high rates, with 70% to 80% having been in therapy, primarily for depression and relationship problems. Lesbians have a higher rate of cardiovascular risk factors, such as obesity and smoking. Since the 1990s, lesbian women have become increasingly willing to disclose their sexual orientation to health care providers and to seek routine physical examinations. Nonetheless, their rates of routine physicals and Pap smears are lower than national guidelines and lower than those of their heterosexual peers, and adolescents in particular have difficulty disclosing their sexual orientation to physicians. Lesbians prefer female and preferably lesbian health care providers and frequently use alternative health care providers such as nonphysicians, acupuncturists, and massage therapists. Lesbian women are 10 times less likely to be screened for cervical cancer than heterosexual women, even though their risk of developing the disease is comparable. This has been thought to be due to lack of concern and a belief that lesbian women were at low risk for cervical cancer. Sexually transmitted diseases also occur in lesbian women, particularly those who have had male partners. Lesbians are increasingly having children through artificial insemination and adoption. Couples wishing to have children through donor insemination have concerns about coming out to their obstetrician, involving the nonpregnant partner, legal issues, family support, and parenting issues. The percentage increases the younger the adolescent is for involuntary first intercourse. Twenty to 25% of women in college have been victims of actual or attempted sexual assault during college. Of the rape victims who came to the emergency room, two thirds had general body trauma. This type of crime, however, is often underreported, and the actual incidence may be much higher. Victims are often reluctant to report sexual assault to the authorities because of embarrassment, fear of retribution, feelings of guilt, assumptions that little will be done, or simply lack of knowledge of their rights. Homeless women and women with mental illness are particularly vulnerable to sexual assaults compared with the general population. In the past, society has held many misconceptions about the rape victim, particularly female victims. These included the notion that the individual encouraged the rape by specific behavior or dress and that no person who did not wish to be raped could be raped. Furthermore, the feeling that rape was an indication of basic promiscuity was widely held. Sexual assault happens to people of all ages and races in all socioeconomic groups. The very young, the mentally and physically handicapped, and the very old are particularly susceptible. Sexual violence can be unwanted touching and rape, but it also includes nonphysical distressing acts of sexual harassment, threats, peeping, and taking nude photos without consent. Although the perpetrator may be a stranger, he or she is often an individual well known to the victim. These include marital rape, which involves forced coitus or related acts without consent but within the marital relationship, and "date rape. Date rape is often not reported because the victim may believe she contributed by partially participating. Almost all states have statutes that criminalize coitus with females under certain specified ages. Consent is irrelevant because the female is defined by statute as being incapable of consenting. During a rape, the victim loses control over his or her life for that period and frequently experiences anxiety and fear. When the attack is life threatening, shock with associated physical and psychological symptoms may occur.

All-cause mortality rates bad medicine 1 cheap donepezil 5 mg without a prescription, including suicide rates medicine wheel wyoming purchase donepezil 5 mg free shipping, are elevated treatment definition math cheap generic donepezil canada, with a mortality rate of 3 treatment zenkers diverticulum order donepezil with amex. Women with bulimia nervosa and purging may develop hypokalemia treatment 1 degree burn donepezil 5 mg buy online, hyponatremia, hypochloremia, a metabolic alkalosis as a result of vomiting, or a metabolic acidosis with laxative abuse. Recurrent self-induced vomiting can result in loss of dental enamel, parotid gland enlargement, or calluses and scars on the dorsal aspect of the hand. Rare but serious complications include esophageal tears, gastric rupture, rectal prolapse, and cardiac arrhythmias. There is strong evidence for the efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy for bulimia nervosa, although complete remission of binging and purging occurs in only 30% to 40%. Other therapies that have some evidence for efficacy are interpersonal therapy, dialectical behavior therapy focusing on emotion regulation, and family therapy in adolescents. Antidepressants are superior to placebo in treatment of bulimia, with the agent of choice being fluoxetine 60 mg daily. Of note, the antidepressant bupropion is contraindicated in women with a history of bulimia because of an elevated risk of seizures, presumably because of electrolyte abnormalities. The outcome of bulimia is full recovery in 45%, significant improvement in 27%, and a chronic, protracted course in about 23%. In binge eating disorder, the woman binge eats (as in bulimia nervosa) an average of once a week for at least 3 months, but she does not engage in compensatory behaviors such as purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. As a result, she may also develop obesity but does not develop the medical complications associated with purging or low weight. Treatment for binge eating disorder includes nutritional consultation, diet, physical activity, education, and specific psychotherapies. The prevalence of obesity is higher in middle-aged adults, minority women, and low-income women and varies by geographic regions. In particular, African American and Hispanic women are at double the risk of nonHispanic white women. Of note, women taking psychotropic medications, especially antipsychotics, are at heightened risk for obesity and metabolic syndrome. The risk of death increased 20% to 40% in the overweight group and by two to three times among obese persons. Using a tape measure at the level of the iliac crest, the waist circumference is taken. Because of these risk factors, many organizations, including the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, recommend screening for obesity. Often these individuals suffer complicating factors, such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemias, heart disease, stroke, arthritis, increased operative morbidity and mortality, and compromised pulmonary function (sleep apnea). Obesity has been linked to multiple obstetric and gynecologic problems, including spontaneous abortion, endometrial hyperplasia, and endometrial and breast cancer, to name a few. A weaker positive association was found with postmenopausal breast, pancreatic, thyroid and colon cancer plus leukemia, multiple myeloma, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The mechanisms of cancer association with obesity may be linked to hormone systems like insulin, insulin-like growth factor, sex steroids, adipokines, and other substances. Patients suffering from severe obesity almost always have medical complications, and these often improve with weight reduction. One study of 145 patients who were approximately 60% overweight and divided them into three groups. Treatment continued for 6 months, and there was at least 1 year of follow-up in 99% of those who completed the therapy. Group 2 received medication therapy with an appetite suppressant, fenfluramine hydrochloride (Pondimin). The third group was treated with a combination of behavior modification and medication and lost an average of 15 kg but regained 9. The authors concluded that behavior modification without medication was the most appropriate therapy for moderate obesity. Setting goals is important in Obstetrics & Gynecology Books Full 9 Emotional Aspects of Gynecology 161 3. A systematic review of 12 trials, involving 3893 participants supported these findings with intensive behavioral counseling, diet (reducing intake by 500 kcal/day) and exercise (150 minutes of walking/week) leading to clinically meaningful weight loss of 0. However, if placed on a nutritionally appropriate limited-caloric diet, they generally do well if their attitudes toward eating and response to various stimuli are modified. Tracking calorie intake, utilizing a smart phone app for weight loss, avoiding food binges, avoiding eating at night, and practicing stress reduction or mindfulness-based training could benefit some women. In a meta-analysis of named diet programs, 48 randomized trials were reviewed and reported the largest weight loss was associated with the lowcarbohydrate diets and low-fat diets (Johnston, 2014). It is more important to find a healthy diet that a person can adhere to long term. One study suggested that if these structured weight loss programs could be provided free of charge to participants, both retention and average weight loss may be far better than when participants pay for these programs. Many diet programs prescribe or sell low-fat foods in an attempt to achieve a diet containing about 20% to 30% fat. Because fat represents 9 Cal/g and protein and carbohydrate represent 4 Cal/g, it is possible by changing eating habits to allow a patient a considerable quantity of food without high numbers of calories. The use of portion-controlled servings has been demonstrated to be effective for weight loss because obese persons tend to underestimate the amount of food they consume. Educating patients to change eating habits in this fashion is the key not only to losing weight but also to maintaining the weight loss. The major problem with such individuals is maintaining weight loss, and, in fact, most do not maintain the weight loss. Several studies have demonstrated that although similar weight loss can be obtained by both diet alone and diet plus exercise programs, the latter will allow for a greater loss of fat stores while maintaining muscle mass. Although exercise alone is not a good method for losing weight, studies indicate exercise is very beneficial for long-term weight management and overall health. One study looked at amount of physical activity and weight gain in women and concluded that physical activity is inversely related to weight gain in women of normal weight, but not in women who are overweight (Lee, 2010). Generally the medication must be continued for sustained benefit or weight gain recurs. Orlistat inhibits dietary fat absorption and is considered firstline treatment because of its better safety profile than other medications. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and North American Association for the Study of Obesity. It is a more selective serotonin agent so is thought to be less likely to cause cardiac valve problems. More patients (67% to 70%) will lose weight on phentermine plus topiramate-extended release and up to 9% weight loss for the top dose (Yanovski, 2014). Warnings include metabolic acidosis, increased heart rate, anxiety, insomnia, and increased creatinine levels. Both lorcaserin and phentermine-topiramate have warnings about memory, attention, and depression. One meta-analysis found the majority of postsurgical obesity patients have resolution or improvement in comorbid conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and obstructive sleep apnea (Puzziferri, 2014). In looking at 29 studies and 7971 patients, gastric bypass had better outcomes than gastric banding for long-term weight loss, type 2 diabetic control and remission, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. Gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy reported weight loss exceeding 50% and only 31% in gastric band studies. Surgical options can provide long-term weight loss but are not without complications. Bariatric procedures used (gastric bypass, laparoscopic gastric band, vertical banded gastroplasty, and biliopancreatic diversion and switch) result in a 20% complication rate and 1% mortality. The surgery was significantly more effective at reducing weight, resolving the metabolic syndrome, and improving quality of life at 2 years after the intervention. The percentage of young people who are overweight has more than tripled since 1980. Seventeen percent of young people (2 to 19 years old) are obese, although this did not change between 2003-2004 and 2011-2012. Being overweight in adolescence is a more powerful predictor of morbidity from cardiovascular disease than being overweight in adulthood. Because the risk for progression with increasing morbidity and mortality is great, prompt support and behavior modification are most important. Where an obese parent is also present, best results seem to be achieved when both the parent and the child undergo therapy but in separate counseling sessions. One study of 42 obese adolescents, ages 12 through 16, divided them into three groups and used 16 weeks of treatment. After 1 year of follow-up, the group in which the mother and child were treated separately maintained their weight loss at a mean of 7. The Cochrane Collaboration reviewed interventions for treating obesity in children in 2009, and although 64 randomized controlled trials were found, the data quality was limited. However, combined behavior lifestyle modifications with dietary changes, physical activity, or behavioral therapy were favored over standard or self-care for meaningful weight control. In obese adolescents, pharmacologic treatment warranted consideration in addition to the combined lifestyle modifications. Beyond the individual, population-based strategies and policies are being studied. They usually have their onset in childhood, adolescence, or early adulthood and are more common in women than in men. Anxiety is a normal, adaptive response to danger or threat and is associated with physical symptoms. Increases in anxiety are common with life stressors, including medical appointments, diagnoses, and procedures. Panic disorder occurs in 1% to 2% of the population and is about twice as common in women than in men. Risk factors include a family history of panic disorder and significant life stress in the year before the development of symptoms. Complications include depression in about two thirds of people, and one third are depressed at the time of clinical presentation. Especially as panic attacks are unpredictable, they frequently lead to anticipatory anxiety (anxiety about having the next panic attack) and phobic avoidance, or avoidance of situations in which the person has had or would fear having a panic attack. These situations commonly include crowds, being in lines or in the middle of an audience, driving (especially in tunnels, over bridges, or in freeways), or other situations in which the woman would feel trapped, unable to get out, or publicly embarrassed. With time, the fear and avoidance surrounding panic attacks often become significantly more distressing and disabling than the attacks themselves and may lead to agoraphobia, or avoidance of multiple situations and activities. Panic disorder, like other anxiety disorders, is also associated with an increased rate of alcohol abuse as a form of self-medication. Finally, panic and other anxiety disorders are associated with an increased risk for suicide attempts. Thus even though a woman presents with anxiety and does not endorse depression, she should be asked about hopeless or suicidal thoughts. The treatment of panic disorder includes reassurance, education, general measures, medication, and psychotherapy. Fortunately, treatment response rates are high, so it is possible to be optimistic that the woman has a highly treatable condition. She may fear that she is dying, has a life-threatening or serious medical illness, or that she is "going crazy," and she can be reassured that, although panic attacks are terrifying, none of these fears is true. As general measures, the woman should be counseled to avoid exacerbating factors, such as caffeine, alcohol, stimulants, or other illicit drugs and to examine possible modifiable sources of increased life stress. Panic disorder responds well to both medication and psychotherapy (Roy-Byrne, 2006). In more severe cases or with significant comorbid phobic avoidance, a combination of both treatments is preferable. There are two important differences in prescribing these medications for panic disorder versus for depression. First, people with panic disorder are frequently very sensitive to medication side effects. Thus although ultimately doses need to be similar to antidepressant doses, it is wise to start treatment at a low dose. Second, whereas antidepressants take 4 to 6 weeks or less to relieve depression, they can take up to 12 weeks to have their full effect on panic and anxiety, with some effect expected by 6 weeks. It is important to educate the woman about this delayed and gradual onset of action. Panic attacks can occur in the context of any anxiety disorder as well as other mental disorders. When the presence of a panic attack is identified, it should be noted as a specifier. For panic disorder, the presence of panic attack is contained within the criteria for the disorder and panic attack is not used as a specifier. An abrupt surge of intense fear or discomfort that reaches a peak within minutes, and during which time four (or more) of the following symptoms occur: Note: the abrupt surge can occur from a calm state or an anxious state. Palpitations, pounding heart, or accelerated heart rate Sweating Trembling or shaking Sensations of shortness of breath or smothering Feeling of choking Chest pain or discomfort Nausea or abdominal distress Feeling dizzy, unsteady, lightheaded, or faint Chills or heat sensations Paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations) Derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached from oneself) 12. Some people experience primary anxiety disorders, involving excessive anxiety that interferes with daily functioning, without apparent explanation or out of proportion to any stressor. People with panic disorder have recurrent, unexpected panic attacks, with at least one of the attacks followed by a month or more of persistent concern about having additional attacks or worry about their consequences. About one third of people in the general population have at least one panic attack during their lives, so that a woman presenting with a single panic attack can be reassured that this is very common. Panic attacks can be precipitated by frightening situations or heightened stress, in which case they are called situational panic attacks. A benzodiazepine such as clonazepam, which has a longer half-life, requires only twice a day dosing, and maintains more constant blood levels, is preferable to shorter-acting agents such as alprazolam.

In some patients medicine bow national forest generic 5 mg donepezil fast delivery, a myelodysplastic syndrome may be present or may develop (chronic lymphocytic lymphoma symptoms bipolar order donepezil on line, Hodgkin or non-Hodgkin lymphoma) medications with sulfa discount 10 mg donepezil with visa. Histologically treatment bronchitis cheap donepezil 5 mg with amex, there are extensive zones of degenerated collagen surrounded by palisaded macrophages medicine buddha mantra discount donepezil 5 mg without prescription. These macrophages are of various forms: foamy, Touton cells, epithelioid, and giant cells, sometimes with more than 50 nuclei. Atypical multinucleated giant cells with multiple nuclei clustered at one end of the cell (polarized nuclei) are seen in 80% or more of cases. Cholesterol clefts and extracellular lipid deposits are prominent, but not universally present. Within this process is a perivascular and interstitial infiltrate of lymphocytes and plasma cells. The histologic differential diagnosis includes necrobiosis lipoidica and other histiocytoses. In addition, extracorporeal photophoresis and thalidomide have induced remissions. EffeberaY,etal: Complete response to thalidomide and dexamethasone in a patient with necrobiotic xanthogranuloma associated with monoclonal gammopathy: a case report and review of the literature. GhiasiN,etal: Necrobiotic xanthogranuloma as an unusual cause of refractive chronic bilateral leg ulceration. HallermanC,etal: Successful treatment of necrobiotic xanthogranuloma with intravenous immunoglobin. HashemiP,etal: Necrobiotic xanthogranuloma of the extremities with paraproteinemia and without periorbital involvement at presentation. KadakiaS,etal: Spectacular skin nodules: cutaneous necrobiotic xanthogranuloma without paraproteinemia. LamK,etal: Bilateral necrobiotic xanthogranuloma of the eyelids followed by a diagnosis of multiple myeloma 20 years later. LiszewskiW,etal: Treatment of refractory necrobiotic xanthogranulomas with extracorporeal photopheresis and intravenous immunoglobulin. MeyerS,etal: Cyclophosphamide-dexamethasone pulsed therapy for treatment of recalcitrant necrobiotic xanthogranuloma with paraproteinemia and ocular involvement. Minami-HoriM,etal: Adult orbital xanthogranulomatous disease: adult-onset xanthogranuloma of periorbital location. NaghashpourM,etal: Nonnecrobiotic necrobiotic xanthogranuloma as an initial manifestation of paraproteinemia and small lymphocytic lymphoma in a patient with Sjögren syndrome. SantosaputriE,etal: A multisystem granulomatous disease: necrobiotic xanthogranuloma with hepatic involvement. SuttonL,etal: Treatment of necrobiotic xanthogranuloma with 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine. YasukawaK,etal: Necrobiotic xanthogranuloma: isolated skeletal muscle involvement and unusual changes. In Europe, it is most prevalent in Scandinavia, especially in Sweden, with a prevalence of 64 per 100,000 population. In the United Kingdom, the rate is 20 per 100,000, and in France and Germany, about 10 in 100,000, with lower rates in Spain and Japan of 1. Women are affected slightly more often than men, with the highest incidence in African American women between ages 30 and 39. The disease begins most frequently between ages 20 and 40, with a second peak at ages 65­69. Patients with late-onset sarcoidosis are five times more frequently women than men, have uveitis, and have specific skin lesions in one third of cases. Several genetic associations have been made with sarcoidosis, but the underlying cause still remains a mystery. In about 20% of patients, the skin lesions appear before the systemic disease; in 50%, the skin and systemic lesions appear simultaneously; and in 30%, the skin lesions appear up to 10 years after the systemic disease has occurred. This is often coincidental with the tapering of systemic corticosteroids for pulmonary sarcoidosis. The cutaneous manifestations of sarcoidosis are varied, and numerous morphologic lesion types have been described, including: papules, nodules, plaques, subcutaneous nodules, scar sarcoidosis, erythroderma, and ulcerations. The lesions may be verrucous, ichthyosiform, hypomelanotic, psoriasiform, or alopecic. The overlying epidermis may be slightly 706 thinned, discolored, telangiectatic, or scaly. The color is faint, showing dull tints of red, purple, brown, or yellow, according to the stage of development. There is a racial difference in the frequency of cutaneous lesions in sarcoidosis. The skin lesions in general do not correlate with the extent or nature of systemic involvement or with prognosis. The morphologic types of sarcoidosis are discussed next, and when possible, the relationship to systemic sarcoidosis. Hyperkeratosis may rarely be prominent, giving the lesions a verrucous appearance. In Caucasians, it often occurs in the context of Lofgren syndrome (see earlier) and has a good prognosis. Papular lesions along the alar rim in African Americans, in contrast, may be the first evidence of lupus pernio (see later) and portend a poor prognosis. Annularsarcoidosis Papular lesions may coalesce or be arranged in annular patterns, usually with a red-brown hue. Lesions favor the head and neck and are usually associated with chronic sarcoidosis. Erythemanodosuminsarcoidosis Erythema nodosum is the most common nonspecific cutaneous finding in sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis may first appear with fever, polyarthralgias, uveitis, bilateral hilar adenopathy, fatigue, and erythema nodosum. This combination, known as Lofgren syndrome, occurs frequently in Scandinavian whites and is uncommon in American blacks. The typical red, warm, and tender subcutaneous nodules of the anterior shins are distinctive and are most frequently seen in young women. The face, upper back, and extensor surfaces of the upper extremities may less frequently be involved. Sweet syndrome may also rarely be seen in association with sarcoidosis as a nonspecific finding. Hypopigmentedsarcoidosis Hypopigmentation may be the earliest sign of sarcoidosis and is usually diagnosed in darkly pigmented races. Lesions vary from a few millimeters to more than 1 cm in diameter and favor the extremities. Although they appear macular, a dermal or subcutaneous component is often palpable. Lupuspernio Lesions typically are brown to violaceous, smooth, shiny plaques on the head and neck, especially the nose. Involvement of the nasal mucosa and underlying bone may occur and lead to nasal perforation and collapse of the nasal bridge. In three quarters of lupus pernio patients, chronic fibrotic respiratory tract involvement is found. In 43%, lupus pernio is associated with granulomas in the bones (punched-out cysts), most often of the fingers. It is important to make the correct diagnosis, Papularsarcoid Papules are the most common morphology of cutaneous sarcoidosis and are usually less than 1 cm in diameter. In one third of cases, it is the presenting finding of sarcoidosis, except in Japan, where it is usually a late finding in patients with known sarcoidosis. Lesions favor the lower extremities, but most patients have lesions in more than one anatomic region. Many patients have multisystem sarcoidosis, although infrequently, no other evidence of sarcoidosis is found. Methotrexate, which can be therapeutic in sarcoidosis, may also lead to ulceration in sarcoidosis patients. Plaques these distinctive lesions are flat-surfaced, slightly elevated plaques that appear with greatest frequency on the cheeks, limbs, and trunk symmetrically. Superficial nodules may be superimposed, and coalescence of plaques may lead to serpiginous lesions. The finding of alopecia in an annular plaque with a raised border should raise the diagnostic consideration of sarcoidosis. Erythrodermicsarcoidosis Erythrodermic sarcoidosis is an extremely rare form of sarcoidosis. A diffuse infiltrative erythroderma of the skin usually begins as erythematous, scaling patches that merge to involve large portions of the body. A biopsy is confirmatory, but the diagnosis can be clinically suspected if small, "apple jelly" papules are seen on diascopy throughout the erythroderma. Subcutaneoussarcoidosis Subcutaneous sarcoidosis is also known as Darier-Roussy sarcoid and consists of a few to numerous 0. The overlying epidermis may be normal (30%), erythematous (50%), or slightly violaceous (10%). About 90% of patients will have multiple lesions, and the upper extremity is most frequently affected (virtually 100% of patients). Lesions on the upper extremity have a tendency to form indurated linear bands from the elbow to the hand on the cubital side of the forearm. The amount of subcutaneous involvement in the upper extremity may be so extensive as to simulate chronic cellulitis. About 90% of patients also will have systemic involvement, usually bilateral hilar adenopathy. Ichthyosiformsarcoidosis Ichthyosiform sarcoidosis resembles ichthyosis vulgaris or acquired ichthyosis, with fine scaling usually on the distal extremities. In 75% of patients, the skin lesions follow or occur at the same time as the diagnosis of systemic sarcoidosis. Although the lesions have no palpable component, a biopsy will reveal dermal noncaseating granulomas. Alopecia Alopecia on the scalp caused by sarcoidosis can have multiple morphologies. More rarely, macular lesions from one to several centimeters in diameter appear on the scalp and closely resemble alopecia areata. Diffuse alopecia, scaly plaques resembling seborrheic dermatitis, and cicatricial lesions resembling discoid lupus erythematosus or pseudopelade may also occur. A biopsy of all forms of alopecic sarcoid will reveal dermal granulomas and sometimes loss of follicular structures. In cases where sarcoidosis affects the scalp, causing alopecia, the patient almost always has other cutaneous lesions, and the vast majority of cases will demonstrate systemic involvement. Similar granulomatous reactions may occur in the earlobe after ear piercing and represent granulomatous allergic dermatitis to metals introduced by the procedure or the earring. From 22% to 77% of biopsies from patients with cutaneous sarcoidosis will contain polarizable foreign material, suggesting that scar sarcoidosis is very common. The foreign material seems to be a nidus that favors the development of sarcoidal granulomas. The presence of polarizable material in a granulomatous process does not confirm the diagnosis of "foreign body granuloma," but rather should result in evaluation of the patient for evidence of systemic sarcoidosis. When foreign material is found, infection must be carefully excluded if no other features of sarcoidosis are found. Nailsarcoidosis Sarcoidosis of the nail can affect any compartment of the nail, causing onycholysis, subungual hyperkeratosis (nail bed involvement), brittle nails, pitting, ridging, or rough nails (trachyonychia), distal matrix involvement, and even pterygium (nail matrix destruction). Sarcoidal dactylitis and phalangeal bone disease as well as intrathoracic sarcoidosis often accompany nail sarcoidosis. Morpheaformsarcoidosis Extremely rarely, specific cutaneous lesions of sarcoidosis may be accompanied by substantial fibrosis and simulate morphea. Sarcoidosisinscars(scarsarcoid) Infiltration and elevation of tattoos and old, flat scars are two variants of scar sarcoid. Infiltration of tattoos may be the first manifestation of sarcoidosis and can be confused with a granulomatous hypersensitivity reaction to the tattoo pigment. Cosmetic tattooing, as may be performed in a dermatology office, may result in sarcoidal granulomas in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. Hyaluronic acid injections can also be complicated by the development of sarcoidal lesions in patients with sarcoidosis. Systemicsarcoidosis Sarcoidosis may involve virtually every internal organ, and its presentations are protean. Fever may be the only symptom of the disease or may be accompanied by weight loss, fatigue, and malaise. Intrathoracic lesions, including parenchymal lung lesions and hilar adenopathy, are the most common manifestation of the disease, occurring in 90% of cases of sarcoidosis. All patients with cutaneous sarcoidosis, even without any respiratory symptoms, should be evaluated with chest radiograph and pulmonary function tests. The panda sign correlates with gallium uptake in the nasopharynx and lacrimal and parotid glands; the lambda sign correlates with uptake in the paratracheal lymph nodes. These characteristic findings, plus a skin biopsy demonstrating typical sarcoidal granulomas, can be used as presumptive evidence for sarcoidosis. Lymphadenopathy, especially of the mediastinal and hilar nodes, and generalized adenopathy, or adenopathy confined to the cervical or axillary areas, may be an initial sign of sarcoidosis or may occur during the course of the disease.

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